Write the clinical manifestations and clinical findings of anaemia, hypothyroid and diabetes. Please also write out clinical diagnosis testing for each with normal and abnormal findings

Write the clinical manifestations and clinical findings of anaemia, hypothyroid and diabetes. Please also write out clinical diagnosis testing for each with normal and abnormal findings

write the clinical manifestations and clinical findings of anemia, hypothyroid and diabetes. Please also write out clinical diagnosis testing for each with normal and abnormal findings

            Anaemia is a condition in which the haemoglobin concentration is lower than normal. The clinical manifestations of anemia include pallor, tachycardia, tachypnea, irritability, fatigue, and shortness of breath. Diagnostic tests to confirm anemia include complete blood cell count (CBC), microscopic examination of RBCs, Serum iron, ferritin, and total iron-binding capacity measurements (Kumar et al., 2022). Abnormal diagnostic findings include hemoglobin <12g/dl and hematocrit <36% in females and <42% in males. Serum iron, ferritin, and total iron-binding capacity are usually low in iron deficiency anemia. Serum folate levels can be reduced in folic acid deficiency (Kumar et al., 2022). In addition, microcytic and hypochromic RBCs are present in iron-deficiency anemia, while macrocytic and misshaped RBCs are seen in megaloblastic anemia.

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Hypothyroidism affects multiple body systems and presents various clinical manifestations in these systems. Manifestations in the cardiopulmonary system include hypotension, shortness of breath, bradycardia, activity intolerance, cardiomegaly, dysrhythmias, and pleural effusion. GI manifestations include anorexia, constipation, weight gain, and abdominal distention. Integumentary system manifestations include dry, cool and pale or yellow skin, coarse, dry, and brittle hair, and slow hair growth (Hegedüs et al., 2022). Musculoskeletal symptoms include myalgia and slow muscle contraction and relaxation. Symptoms in the neurological system include slurred speech, slowed intellectual functions, memory loss, impaired attention span, lethargy, and confusion. Diagnostic tests include Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and Free thyroxine (T4) tests (Hegedüs et al., 2022). Abnormal findings in hypothyroidism include decreased TSH and T4 levels.

Diabetes is characterized by impaired insulin secretion and peripheral insulin resistance, causing hyperglycemia. Clinical manifestations of diabetes are attributed to hyperglycemia and include polyphagia, polydipsia, polyuria, and blurred vision (Banday et al., 2020). Diagnostic tests include Fasting blood glucose (FBS), Glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1C), and Random Blood Sugar (RBS). Abnormal findings that indicate diabetes include HbA1C ≥ 6.5%, FBS >126 mg/dL, and RBS >200 mg/dL.

References

Banday, M. Z., Sameer, A. S., & Nissar, S. (2020). Pathophysiology of diabetes: An overview. Avicenna Journal of Medicine, 10(4), 174–188. https://doi.org/10.4103/ajm.ajm_53_20

Hegedüs, L., Bianco, A. C., Jonklaas, J., Pearce, S. H., Weetman, A. P., & Perros, P. (2022). Primary hypothyroidism and quality of life. Nature Reviews. Endocrinology, 18(4), 230–242. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-021-00625-8

Kumar, A., Sharma, E., Marley, A., Samaan, M. A., & Brookes, M. J. (2022). Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management. BMJ Open Gastroenterology, 9(1), e000759. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgast-2021-000759

 

write the clinical manifestations and clinical finding of anemia, hypothyroid and diabetes. Please also write out clinical diagnosis testing for each with normal and abnormal findings.